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Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness

Medicine

Statue of Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine, belongings the symbolic Rod of Asclepius with its coiled serpent
Specialist	Medical specialty
Glossary	Glossary of medicine

Medicine is the scientific discipline^[1] and practice^[two] of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their wellness. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of affliction. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical engineering to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and illness, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but too through therapies every bit various as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others.^[3]

Medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and noesis) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local civilization. For example, a medicine man would utilize herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and doc would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has get a combination of fine art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the cognition of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues existence stitched arises through science.

Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine or folk medicine, which remains ordinarily used in the absence of scientific medicine, and are thus called alternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine having rubber and efficacy concerns are termed quackery.

Etymology [edit]

Medicine (, ) is the science and exercise of the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.^{[iv] [5]} The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, meaning "a physician".^{[6] [vii]}

Clinical practice [edit]

Medical availability and clinical practise varies beyond the world due to regional differences in culture and technology. Mod scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western world, while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with express evidence and efficacy and no required formal preparation for practitioners.^[8]

In the adult world, evidence-based medicine is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that well-nigh 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm.^[nine]

In mod clinical practice, physicians and physician assistants personally assess patients in club to diagnose, prognose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The dr.-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an exam of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed past a medical interview^[ten] and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g. stethoscope, natural language depressor) are typically used. After examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may club medical tests (e.g. blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods assist to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important function of the relationship and the evolution of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal certificate in many jurisdictions.^[11] Follow-ups may exist shorter just follow the same full general process, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complication of the event.

The components of the medical interview^[10] and encounter are:

• Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient'due south own words and are recorded forth with the duration of each one. Also called 'master concern' or 'presenting complaint'.
• History of present illness (HPI): the chronological gild of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous affliction, ofttimes called past medical history (PMH). Medical history comprises HPI and PMH.
• Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.
• Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, also as alternative and herbal medicines or remedies. Allergies are also recorded.
• By medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical issues, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases or vaccinations, history of known allergies.
• Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic condition, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, booze).
• Family unit history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family tree is sometimes used.
• Review of systems (ROS) or systems enquiry: a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general research (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.).

The concrete examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of affliction, which are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered by the patient and not necessarily objectively appreciable.^[12] The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, bear on, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Four actions are the ground of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (mind), generally in that club although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments.^[13]

The clinical test involves the study of:^[14]

• Vital signs including acme, weight, body temperature, claret pressure, pulse, respiration rate, and hemoglobin oxygen saturation^[fifteen]
• General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of illness (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)
• Skin
• Caput, eye, ear, nose, and pharynx (HEENT)^[sixteen]
• Cardiovascular (center and blood vessels)
• Respiratory (large airways and lungs)^[17]
• Abdomen and rectum
• Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could exist meaning)
• Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities)
• Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves)
• Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, mood, testify of abnormal perception or thought).

It is to likely focus on areas of involvement highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above.

The treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-upwards may be brash. Depending upon the wellness insurance plan and the managed intendance system, various forms of "utilization review", such as prior authority of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services.^[18]

The medical controlling (MDM) procedure involves assay and synthesis of all the above information to come with a listing of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an thought of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient'southward problem.

On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.

Institutions [edit]

Contemporary medicine is in full general conducted inside health intendance systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of whatsoever given health care system have significant bear upon on the way medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the globe.^[nineteen] Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United states)^{[20] [21]} and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer wellness care system, or compulsory individual or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Commitment may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, about commonly past a combination of all three.

Nearly tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that tin can beget to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or every bit office of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.

Transparency of information is some other factor defining a commitment organization. Admission to information on weather condition, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the U.s. healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,^[22] new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one paw and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.

The health professionals who provide care in medicine comprise multiple professions such as medics, nurses, physio therapists, and psychologists. These professions will take their own ethical standards, professional education, and bodies. The medical profession have been conceptualized from a sociological perspective.^[23]

Delivery [edit]

Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and third intendance categories.^[24]

Primary care medical services are provided by physicians, medico assistants, nurse practitioners, or other wellness professionals who accept start contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care.^[25] These occur in doctor offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, dwelling house visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated past the primary care provider. These include handling of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.

Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred past a primary care provider who starting time diagnosed or treated the patient.^[26] Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, Emergency departments, intensive care medicine, surgery services, concrete therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may likewise take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary intendance setting.

Tertiary care medical services are provided past specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, fire handling centers, avant-garde neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.

Mod medical care also depends on information – nonetheless delivered in many health care settings on paper records, merely increasingly nowadays past electronic means.

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.^[27]

Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug. In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.^[28]

Branches [edit]

Cartoon by Marguerite Martyn (1918) of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babies

Working together every bit an interdisciplinary squad, many highly trained wellness professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physics, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist.

The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.

A patient admitted to the hospital is ordinarily under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.m., the cardiology squad, who and so may collaborate with other specialties, eastward.one thousand., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the principal problem or any subsequent complications/developments.

Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. At that place are variations from state to land regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.

The master branches of medicine are:

• Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research
• Medical specialties
• Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.

Basic sciences [edit]

• Anatomy is the study of the physical construction of organisms. In dissimilarity to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
• Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and part of their chemic components.
• Biomechanics is the study of the construction and part of biological systems by means of the methods of Mechanics.
• Biostatistics is the awarding of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also central to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.
• Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems.
• Cytology is the microscopic report of private cells.

• Embryology is the study of the early evolution of organisms.
• Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their outcome throughout the body of animals.
• Epidemiology is the written report of the demographics of illness processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.
• Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.
• Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
• Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for case.
• Lifestyle medicine is the report of the chronic atmospheric condition, and how to prevent, treat and opposite them.
• Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.
• Microbiology is the written report of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
• Molecular biological science is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material.
• Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. Some related clinical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry.
• Diet science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is the written report of the human relationship of nutrient and drink to health and disease, peculiarly in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases.
• Pathology as a scientific discipline is the study of affliction—the causes, form, progression and resolution thereof.
• Pharmacology is the report of drugs and their actions.
• Gynecology is the report of female reproductive organisation.
• Photobiology is the study of the interactions betwixt not-ionizing radiation and living organisms.
• Physiology is the written report of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.
• Radiobiology is the written report of the interactions between ionizing radiation and living organisms.
• Toxicology is the study of hazardous furnishings of drugs and poisons.

Specialties [edit]

In the broadest significant of "medicine", in that location are many different specialties. In the United kingdom, nearly specialities accept their own body or higher, which has its ain entrance examination. These are collectively known equally the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term "Majestic". The development of a speciality is often driven by new engineering (such as the development of constructive anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own test.

Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into i of ii broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery". "Medicine" refers to the exercise of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced past passing the test for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Republic of ireland. "Surgery" refers to the exercise of operative medicine, and well-nigh subspecialties in this surface area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine practise not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps in a higher place; for instance anaesthesia developed showtime equally a kinesthesia of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would accept been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained past sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).

Surgical specialty [edit]

Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition such every bit disease or injury, to assistance ameliorate actual office or advent or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. Surgery has many sub-specialties, including full general surgery,^[29] ophthalmic surgery,^[30] cardiovascular surgery, colorectal surgery,^[31] neurosurgery,^[32] oral and maxillofacial surgery,^[33] oncologic surgery,^[34] orthopedic surgery,^[35] otolaryngology,^[36] plastic surgery,^[37] podiatric surgery, transplant surgery, trauma surgery,^[38] urology,^[39] vascular surgery,^[xl] and pediatric surgery.^[41] In some centers, anesthesiology is role of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is non a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as ophthalmology and dermatology, but are non considered surgical sub-specialties per se.

Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency subsequently medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require vii or more years. In addition, fellowships tin can concluding an additional ane to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to enquiry. Thus in some cases surgical training will not stop until more than than a decade afterward medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming.

Internal medicine specialty [edit]

Internal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases.^[42] Co-ordinate to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.^[43] In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, particularly in Republic nations, such specialists are often chosen physicians.^[44] These terms, internist or doc (in the narrow sense, common exterior North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities.

Considering their patients are often seriously sick or require complex investigations, internists do much of their piece of work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would meet whatsoever complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practise has become much less mutual. In mod urban do, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they by and large limit their medical practice to problems of 1 organ arrangement or to one particular area of medical cognition. For case, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.^[45]

In the Republic of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described every bit specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by historic period of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a course of principal care.

There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:

• Angiology/Vascular Medicine
• Bariatrics
• Cardiology
• Critical care medicine
• Endocrinology
• Gastroenterology
• Geriatrics
• Hematology
• Hepatology
• Infectious disease
• Nephrology
• Neurology
• Oncology
• Pediatrics
• Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/breast medicine
• Rheumatology
• Sports Medicine

Training in internal medicine (equally opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: meet the articles on medical education and physician for more than details. In North America, it requires at to the lowest degree 3 years of residency preparation after medical school, which tin can then be followed by a one- to iii-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In full general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about threescore hours per week in the US. This divergence does not employ in the Uk where all doctors are now required past law to piece of work less than 48 hours per week on average.

Diagnostic specialties [edit]

• Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the Usa, these services are supervised past a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who practise not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who really perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include transfusion medicine, cellular pathology, clinical chemistry, hematology, clinical microbiology and clinical immunology.
• Pathology as a medical specialty is the co-operative of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. Every bit a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modernistic scientific medical noesis and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as catamenia cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, factor rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.
• Diagnostic radiology is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Interventional radiologists tin can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling.
• Nuclear medicine is concerned with studying human organ systems past administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a gamma camera or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the part under study (due east.thou., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood menses, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a caste of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, every bit evidenced past the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.
• Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the key and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electric activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potential, nerve conduction study and polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, just the interpretation of these tests is washed past a medical professional.

Other major specialties [edit]

The post-obit are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups:

• Anesthesiology (also known every bit anaesthetics): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist'south office during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.east. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain. Exterior of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.
• Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine.
• Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.
• Family medicine, family exercise, general do or chief care is, in many countries, the offset port-of-call for patients with not-emergency medical issues. Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency section coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.

• Obstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated equally OB/GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced past gynecological specialists.
• Medical genetics is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.
• Neurology is concerned with diseases of the nervous organisation. In the U.k., neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.
• Ophthalmology is exclusively concerned with the centre and ocular adnexa, combining bourgeois and surgical therapy.
• Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (Be) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.
• Pharmaceutical medicine is the medical scientific field of study concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public wellness.
• Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement subsequently injury, illness, or congenital disorders.
• Podiatric medicine is the written report of, diagnosis, and medical & surgical treatment of disorders of the human foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.
• Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Related fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology.
• Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease.
  • Community health or public health is an aspect of wellness services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.

Interdisciplinary fields [edit]

Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:

• Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.
• Addiction medicine deals with the treatment of addiction.
• Medical ethics deals with ethical and moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.
• Biomedical Applied science is a field dealing with the awarding of engineering principles to medical practice.
• Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients.
• Conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health, and ecology conditions. Besides known every bit ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology.
• Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and direction.
• Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related bug.
• Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory.
• Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such equally decision of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.
• Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the homo sexes and how that affects differences in illness.
• Hospice and Palliative Medicine is a relatively modernistic branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure.
• Infirmary medicine is the general medical intendance of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are chosen hospitalists in the Usa and Canada. The term Most Responsible Medico (MRP) or attending doc is too used interchangeably to describe this role.
• Laser medicine involves the utilise of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of various conditions.
• Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ideals, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical educational activity and practice.
• Health informatics is a relatively recent field that bargain with the application of computers and data engineering to medicine.
• Nosology is the classification of diseases for diverse purposes.
• Nosokinetics is the scientific discipline/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social intendance systems.
• Occupational medicine is the provision of wellness advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work tin exist achieved and maintained.
• Pain direction (also called pain medicine, or algiatry) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.
• Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine.
• Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.
• Sexual medicine is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.
• Sports medicine deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/do injuries such as muscle spasms, muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in athletes, apprentice and professional person.
• Therapeutics is the field, more usually referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health.^[46]
• Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with wellness issues of international travelers or travelers across highly unlike environments.
• Tropical medicine deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.
• Urgent care focuses on commitment of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the infirmary emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to crave care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this role is combined with the emergency department.
• Veterinarian medicine; veterinarians apply like techniques as physicians to the care of animals.
• Wilderness medicine entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available.
• Many other health science fields, e.g. dietetics

Educational activity and legal controls [edit]

Medical students learning virtually stitches

Medical education and grooming varies effectually the world. It typically involves entry level pedagogy at a university medical school, followed past a period of supervised practice or internship, or residency. This can exist followed by postgraduate vocational training. A multifariousness of teaching methods take been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United states of America, a Doctor of Medicine caste, often abbreviated M.D., or a Dr. of Osteopathic Medicine degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university.

Since cognition, techniques, and medical engineering science continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory government require standing medical education. Medical practitioners upgrade their noesis in various ways, including medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, every bit suggested by national societies across the U.s., can be searched at http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/.^[47]

In nigh countries, information technology is a legal requirement for a medical dr. to be licensed or registered. In full general, this entails a medical degree from a academy and accreditation by a medical lath or an equivalent national organization, which may enquire the bidder to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authorisation of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified past national standards. It is besides intended as an assurance to patients and every bit a safeguard confronting charlatans that practise inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally crave medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of wellness.

In the European union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject field to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for medico of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC.

Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and exist bailiwick to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions.

Medical ethics [edit]

Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings besides as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and folklore. Six of the values that usually apply to medical ethics discussions are:

• autonomy – the patient has the correct to decline or cull their handling. (Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.)
• beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best involvement of the patient. (Salus aegroti suprema lex.)
• justice – concerns the distribution of scarce wellness resources, and the decision of who gets what handling (fairness and equality).
• non-maleficence – "starting time, practise no harm" (primum non-nocere).
• respect for persons – the patient (and the person treating the patient) take the right to be treated with nobility.
• truthfulness and honesty – the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials, Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others.

Values such equally these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, merely provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the consequence may be an ethical dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ideals exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the infirmary and its staff) disharmonize with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts tin also arise between health intendance providers, or amid family members. For example, some fence that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, because them life-saving; and truth-telling was non emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era.

History [edit]

Statuette of aboriginal Egyptian physician Imhotep, the outset dr. from antiquity known by proper name

Aboriginal world [edit]

Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology examines the ways in which civilization and society are organized around or impacted past issues of health, health intendance and related issues.

Early on records on medicine take been discovered from aboriginal Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine.

In Egypt, Imhotep (3rd millennium BCE) is the first physician in history known by proper name. The oldest Egyptian medical text is the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus dating back to 1600 BCE is an early piece of work on surgery, while the Ebers Papyrus dating back to 1500 BCE is alike to a textbook on medicine.^[48]

In Mainland china, archaeological prove of medicine in Chinese dates back to the Bronze Historic period Shang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery.^[49] The Huangdi Neijing, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2d century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century.^[l]

In India, the surgeon Sushruta described numerous surgical operations, including the primeval forms of plastic surgery.^{[51] [ dubious – discuss ] [52]} Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in Sri Lanka where evidence of dedicated medicinal handling facilities for patients are found.^{[53] [54]}

In Hellenic republic, the Greek physician Hippocrates, the "male parent of modernistic medicine",^{[55] [56]} laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in utilize today, and was the get-go to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, owned and epidemic, and employ terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence".^{[57] [58]} The Greek medico Galen was too one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including encephalon and middle surgeries. Subsequently the autumn of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into refuse in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

Almost of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BC comes from the Torah, i.e. the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the Byzantine Era, with the physician Asaph the Jew.^[59]

Middle Ages [edit]

The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just but a identify to die, appeared in the Byzantine Empire.^[60]

Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not run across the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was nether the Byzantines with physicians such of Theophilus Protospatharius that they realized the potential in uroscopy to make up one's mind disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the remainder of Europe.^[61]

After 750 CE, the Muslim earth had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some significant medical enquiry. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been chosen the "father of medicine".^[62] He wrote The Canon of Medicine which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities,^[63] considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.^[64] Others include Abulcasis,^[65] Avenzoar,^[66] Ibn al-Nafis,^[67] and Averroes.^[68] Persian physician Rhazes^[69] was ane of the starting time to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.^[lxx] Some volumes of Rhazes'south piece of work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A Full general Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.^[71] Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,^[72] the father of pediatrics,^{[73] [74]} and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For case, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's educatee to low-cal.^[74] The Persian Bimaristan hospitals were an early case of public hospitals.^{[75] [76]}

In Europe, Charlemagne decreed that a hospital should be fastened to each cathedral and monastery and the historian Geoffrey Blainey likened the activities of the Catholic Church in wellness care during the Middle Ages to an early on version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the one-time and orphanages for the young; hospices for the ill of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a inexpensive bed and repast". It supplied nutrient to the population during dearth and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large calibration and possessing large farmlands and estates. The Benedictine lodge was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the primary medical care givers of their districts, as at the great Abbey of Cluny. The Church likewise established a network of cathedral schools and universities where medicine was studied. The Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, looking to the learning of Greek and Arab physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe.^[77]

Siena'south Santa Maria della Scala Infirmary, one of Europe's oldest hospitals. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities to revive the study of sciences, drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.

However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has fifty-fifty been argued that Western Europe was generally more than effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East.^[78] In the early modern menstruum, of import early figures in medicine and beefcake emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.

The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authorization' approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything 1 observed to the contrary was an bibelot (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European social club in general – encounter Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Vesalius improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The master tomes used both past medicine students and skilful physicians were Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia.

Andreas Vesalius was the author of De humani corporis fabrica, an of import book on human being anatomy.^[79] Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology.^[80] Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written downwards for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris"^[81] in 1546, and afterward published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described past Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary educational activity in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). Pierre Fauchard has been called "the father of modern dentistry".^[82]

Modern [edit]

Veterinary medicine was, for the starting time fourth dimension, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinary Claude Bourgelat founded the globe's commencement veterinary school in Lyon, French republic. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.

Modernistic scientific biomedical inquiry (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early on Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "iv humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the terminate of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier adept in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of affliction by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.

The post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions. In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered important. Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience.

From New Zealand and Commonwealth of australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet.

Others that did pregnant work include William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (United States); Salvador Luria (Italian republic); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Nippon); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (France); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Russia); Sir William Osler (Canada); and Harvey Cushing (Usa).

Alexander Fleming'south discovery of penicillin in September 1928 marks the beginning of modern antibiotics.

As scientific discipline and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Throughout history and in Europe correct until the late 18th century, not only animal and plant products were used equally medicine, merely also homo trunk parts and fluids.^[83] Pharmacology developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are withal derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids,^[84] taxol, hyoscine, etc.).^[85] Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur.

The first antibody was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered past Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major form of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes.

Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects. Genomics and noesis of human genetics and human evolution is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders take now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biological science, evolution, and genetics are influencing medical engineering, practise and conclusion-making.

Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary motion to establish the well-nigh constructive algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the utilize of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by modernistic global information scientific discipline, which allows as much of the available prove as possible to be collected and analyzed co-ordinate to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, co-ordinate to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded bereft prove, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect.^[86]

Quality, efficiency, and access [edit]

Evidence-based medicine, prevention of medical error (and other "iatrogenesis"), and avoidance of unnecessary wellness care are a priority in modern medical systems. These topics generate pregnant political and public policy attention, particularly in the United States where healthcare is regarded equally excessively plush only population health metrics lag like nations.^[87]

Globally, many developing countries lack access to care and access to medicines.^[88] As of 2015, near wealthy adult countries provide wellness intendance to all citizens, with a few exceptions such as the Usa where lack of wellness insurance coverage may limit access.^[89]

See too [edit]

• Alternative medicine – Course of non-scientific healing
• Listing of causes of death past rate – Wikimedia list article
• Listing of disorders – Wikipedia list article
• List of important publications in medicine – Wikipedia list commodity
• Lists of diseases – Wikipedia list article
• Medical help
• Medical encyclopedia
• Medical ethics – System of moral principles of the practice of medicine
• Medical equipment
• Medical classification
• Medical billing – Function of the US wellness system's reimbursement process
• Medical literature
• Medical malpractice – Legal crusade of activity when health professionals deviate from standards of practice harming a patient
• Medical psychology
• Medical sociology
• Philosophy of healthcare
• Quackery – Promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices
• Traditional medicine – Formalized folk medicine

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